Sources of Teaching and Learning Approaches

Teaching and learning approaches can be influenced by various sources, each contributing unique perspectives and methodologies to the education process. Here's an overview:

Traditional Sources:

1. Lectures: One of the oldest forms of teaching, where information is disseminated by an expert to a larger audience.
2. Textbooks: Books that provide a structured way of presenting information, often with accompanying exercises.
3. Teacher-Centered Approach: Focuses on the teacher as the primary source of knowledge, who instructs through a unilateral delivery of information.
4. Rote Learning: Emphasizes memorization and repetition.

Modern and Progressive Sources:

1. Student-Centered Approach: Focused on the needs, abilities, interests, and learning styles of the students rather than the teacher.
2. Constructivism: Emphasizes that learning is an active, constructive process and that learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current or past knowledge.
3. Collaborative Learning: Utilizes group work and team efforts to solve problems or analyze issues.
4. Problem-Based Learning: Learning occurs by solving real-world problems.
5. Blended Learning: A mix of traditional classroom teaching and online instruction.
6. Flipped Classroom: Students learn content online, typically at home, and homework is done in class with teachers and students discussing and solving questions.
7. Game-Based Learning: Utilizes games to achieve educational objectives.
8. Service Learning: Students learn by doing community service.
9. Experiential Learning: Learning through experience or by doing.

Technology-Driven Sources:

1. Online Courses (MOOCs): Massive Open Online Courses that allow for self-paced learning.
2. Simulation and Virtual Reality: For a hands-on experience in a virtual environment.
3. Adaptive Learning Platforms: Use algorithms to adapt learning pathways based on the learner's progress and performance.
4. Educational Apps and Software: For targeted learning in subjects like math, language, etc.

Cultural and Social Sources:

1. Oral Traditions: Common in many cultures where history and traditions are passed orally from generation to generation.
2. Peer Teaching and Learning: Learning from classmates or colleagues.
3. Community Involvement: Learning through community events, interviews, and interaction.
4. Family: Basic skills and cultural norms are often first learned within the family.

Research and Theory:

1. Educational Theories and Models: Such as Bloom's Taxonomy, Multiple Intelligences, and VARK learning styles.
2. Pedagogical Research: Empirical studies that shed light on effective teaching methods.
3. Philosophical and Ideological Frameworks: For example, Montessori, Waldorf, or Democratic Education.
4. Educational Policies and Standards: Sometimes these prescribe or limit teaching and learning approaches.

Each of these sources may be more effective for certain types of content, learners, or educational settings, and they can often be combined in various ways for the most effective education.

 

Effects of School Laws on Educational Administration

The effects of school laws on educational administration can be significant and multifaceted. Laws dictate not only the overall governance of educational institutions but also directly influence how these institutions are run, what resources are allocated, and how educators and administrators are selected and how they interact with students. 

Here are some of the most common ways in which school laws can affect educational administration:

Funding

Laws dictate how schools are funded, whether through federal, state, or local resources. Funding laws directly affect everything from teacher salaries to available resources for students. Inadequate funding, often due to laws, can have severe consequences, limiting the scope and quality of educational programs. For example, many governments have laws making provisions for capitation grants for education provision, which serves to enhance service delivery while maintaining equity. 

Curriculum

Many jurisdictions have laws that standardize curriculum or mandate the teaching of certain subjects. This can reduce the flexibility administrators have in developing and implementing educational programs tailored to their students' needs.

Accountability

Laws often set standards for evaluating school performance, including standardized testing and other metrics. This places considerable pressure on administrators to meet these targets, often within constrained resources and timelines.

Equity

Anti-discrimination laws mandate equal opportunities for students regardless of their background. Administrators have to ensure these laws are followed, which can include allocating resources for special education programs, ESL programs, and other specialized services.

Student Discipline

Policies related to student conduct, including those concerning suspension and expulsion, are typically shaped by laws at both the state and federal levels. Administrators must navigate these laws carefully to ensure fair treatment of all students.

Teachers' Rights

Labor laws and unions have a significant impact on how administrators manage faculty, from hiring and firing to tenure and union negotiations. Laws may protect teacher rights but can also make it more challenging for administrators to make staffing changes.

Special Education

Laws like the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in the United States require schools to provide specific services to students with disabilities. This requires administrators to make special accommodations and often allocate extra resources. In Kenya we also have laws that make provisions for special education, and Key among them is the establishment of the Kenya Institute of Special Education (KISE). 

Technology Use

With the advent of technology in classrooms, laws related to cyberbullying, data privacy, and digital citizenship are becoming increasingly important. Administrators must be well-versed in these laws to mitigate risks and create a safe online environment.

Health and Safety

Administrators must comply with laws related to student health and safety, including building codes, emergency preparedness, and healthcare services.

Parental Involvement

In some jurisdictions, laws encourage or mandate parental involvement in school governance, affecting how administrators interact with parents and the community at large.

Religious and Cultural Sensitivity

Laws often dictate how schools must treat religious and cultural issues, requiring a delicate balance between maintaining secular educational standards and respecting religious freedoms.

In summary, educational administrators are required to navigate a complex landscape of laws and regulations that have both direct and indirect implications on school management. Failure to comply with these laws can result in legal repercussions, loss of funding, and even closure of the school, making it critical for administrators to stay well-informed and adapt their management strategies accordingly.

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ELEMENTS OF TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT

Total Quality Management (TQM) is an emerging system for organisation management that values quality. It puts a lot of emphasis on the participation of all members in an organisation to ensure long term success through customer satisfaction and benefits to society and all organisation members. It integrates all organisation functions and departments (marketing, Finance, design, engineering and production, customer service...) to meet customer needs and achieve the organisation goals.

Elements of TQM include:

a)      Quality: Quality systems have to used and implemented by an organization and quality strategies to be put in place and should be those that are continuously reviewed so that it can produce product that are of quality and are conformant to the standards.

b)     Customer satisfaction: Organizations are basically in existence as a business and thus have customers. It's important for the customers to be satisfied and delighted so that they come back and buy more and more or what is known as a repeat purchase. Delighted customers will eventually be evangelistic to the organization’s product (tell others about the organizations product). TQM advocates that managers and employees become so customer focused that they continually find new ways to meet or exceeding customer's expectations. We must accept the concept that quality gets customer orders and meets their needs and expectations. This is the strategic goal of TQM and it helps the organization to be competitive in its environment since it gives the customers satisfaction,

c)      Continuous improvement: A concept that recognizes that quality improvement is a journey with no end and that there is a need for continually looking for new approaches for improving quality. By this the organization produces quality products since its always looking to continually improve their products and thus bring customer satisfaction.

d)     Quality measurement Quality of a product is very important. Some unscrupulous business people will try as much as possible to produce counterfeit goods. Organizations' will thus have to put in place preventive measures to try and curb this. Allowing the organization to initiate corrective action, set priorities and evaluate progress. Standards and measures should reflect customer requirements and changes that need to be introduced in the internal business of providing those requirements. The emphasis is on "doing the right thing right the first time." By this the organization is able to produce quality products that will be of satisfaction to the customers.

e)        Leadership and commitment: Top management must be the driving force behind TQM. Managers who are the leaders must exhibit personal support by using quality improvement concepts in their management style, incorporating quality in their strategic planning process, and providing financial and staff support. Experience shows that substantial gains come only after management or leaders make a long term commitment, usually five years or more, in improving quality. Customer focus must be constantly renewed to keep that goal foremost.

f)       Employee empowerment: Training is vital for the process of TQM implementation and achieving it. By Empowering the employees with knowledge of the processes the employees are able to understand what is expected of them and also help to bring about employee participation is also an integral part of the process.

g)      Teamwork synergy Team work is a crucial element of total quality management and as such it is important that employees work together in teams since mis gives room for brainstorming ideas and coming up with various solutions which would improve the existing processes and systems and hence bring about quality improvement and customer satisfaction.

h)     Stakeholder's symmetry: The stakeholders need to uphold justice, fairness and equity for the organization to have social peace progress and prosperity. With this the organization is able to focus on quality of products and customer satisfaction.

i)       Culture: The culture requires quality in all aspects of the company's operations, with processes being done right the first time and defects and waste eradicated from operations. Firms with strong comprehensive culture implement highly the TQM elements of top management leadership, people, process, customer and supplier management. This means that any organization that cultivates a quality culture will be competitive in its environment.

Differences of Quality measures for firms offering service and that of a Firm Producing a Real Product

Service providers want to know what customers (internal or external) care about. Service quality is a good guess. Price, and to a minor degree product quality, also count. But for service providers, customers care most about service quality.

The five service quality dimensions are:

• TANGIBLES: Under this service quality dimension, service providers need to consider the appearance of physical facilities, equipment, personnel, and communication materials. For example in the catering industry like hotels, the facilities need to look impressive, clean and meeting customer expectations.
• RELIABILITY: Service providers should ensure the ability to perform the promised service dependably and accurately. For example, if a service provider promises to offer a service to a large group of people, they need to have the capacity to deliver the service to expectation.
• RESPONSIVENESS: This refers to the willingness to help customers and provide prompt service when they need it. The service providers should provide the customer moment of satisfaction where they get the service promptly at the right time, place and price.
• ASSURANCE: This is the knowledge and courtesy of employees and their ability to convey trust and confidence to the clients. Customers need to feel assured that they will receive the service requested.
• EMPATHY: This refers to the caring, individualized attention the firm provides its customers.

Defining quality in manufacturing organizations is often different from that of services. Manufacturing organizations produce a tangible product that can be seen, touched, and directly measured. The most common quality definitions in manufacturing are:

PERFORMANCE – This refers to the basic operating characteristics of a product. A product needs to meet the performance levels that it has been touted to achieve.

CONFORMANCE: This refers to the degree to which a product characteristic meets present standards.

FEATURES: These are all the things that are included beyond the basic characteristics of a product.

RELIABILITY: This is the expected feature that the product will function as expected without failure.

DURABILITY: The product that has been developed is expected operational during the life of the product.

SERVICEABILITY: This refers to how readily a product can be repaired in the eventuality that it breaks down or stops working.

IMPORTANCE OF HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING IN AN ORGANISATION

Human Resource Planning is the ongoing, continuous process of systematic planning to achieve optimum use of an organization's most valuable asset — its human resources. It is a process that identifies current and future human resources needs for an organization to achieve its goals.  Human resource planning strives to get the right number of the right sorts of people in the right place at the right time and for the right cost. The objective of human resource planning is to ensure the best fit between employees and jobs while avoiding manpower shortages or surpluses. The four key steps of the human resources planning process are analysing present labour supply, forecasting labour demand, balancing projected labour demand with supply and supporting organizational goals.

The human resources plan needs to be flexible enough to meet short-term staffing challenges while adapting to changing conditions in the business environment over the longer term.

The importance of Human Resource Planning (HRP) cannot be understated. In the paragraphs below are some of the reasons why HRP is critical in an organisation.

a)      The Human resource is key to ensuring the four managerial functions in an organisation which include planning, organizing, directing and controlling are conducted efficiently and effectively.  Human resources help in the implementation of all these managerial activities and therefore a careful planning for the people to conduct these functions becomes critical.

b)      Efficient utilization of the human resource is an important function in the industrialization world of today. Setting of large scale enterprises requires management of large scale manpower. This can be effectively done through the staffing function and as such HRP comes in as critical.

c)      Staffing function not only includes putting right men on right job, but it also comprises of motivational programmes such as incentive plans to be framed for further participation and employment of employees in a concern. Therefore, all types of incentive plans become an integral part of staffing function. To ensure this motivation of employees being in an organisation that’s a going concern, there need to be prudent human resource planning to ensure the right number of staffing is maintained.

d)      An organisation can stabilize itself if human relations develop and are strong. Human relations become strong through effective control, clear communication, effective supervision and leadership in a concern. Staffing function also looks after training and development of the work force which leads to co-operation and better human relations.

e)      With good human resource planning, productivity level increases as the human resources are utilized in best possible manner. Higher productivity is a result of minimum wastage of time, money, effort and energy. This is possible through the staffing and its related activities such as performance appraisal, training and development, remuneration among others.

THE HISTORY OF MANAGEMENT

Introduction

Management has been defined differently by different authors in the field. Follet M.P has defined it as the art of getting things done through people. Stoner J.A.F on the other hand gives a more detailed definition of management as the process of planning, organizing, leading and controlling the efforts of organization members and of using all other organizational resources to achieve stated organizational goals.

Management has evolved over the years with the changes in the theories of management being developed and system changes such as advances in technology. 

This papers seeks to expound on the history of management and key theories that have shaped management to what it is to date.

Scientific Management Theory (1890-1940)

The Scientific management theory was propagated mainly by Taylor F.W who is regarded as the father of scientific management. At the turn of the century, the most notable organizations were large and industrialized. Often they included ongoing, routine tasks that manufactured a variety of products. Many organizations then highly prized scientific and technical matters, including careful measurement and specification of activities and results. Management tended to be the same. Frederick Taylor developed “the scientific management theory” which espoused this careful specification and measurement of all organizational tasks. Tasks were standardized as much as possible. Workers were rewarded and punished. This approach appeared to work well for organizations with assembly lines and other mechanistic, routinized activities. There was focus on increasing productivity and efficiency through standardisation, division of labour, centralisation and hierarchy. A very ‘top down’ management with strict control over people and processes dominated across industries.

Administrative School of Management (Henry Fayol, early 20^th century).

This school of management was propagated by Henry Fayol, who’s often regarded as the father of management theory. On the basis of his personal experiences, Fayol developed 14 principles of management that include the following:

i)                   Division of work: Work should be divided among individuals and groups to ensure that effort and attention are focused on special portions of the task. Fayol presented work specialization as the best way to use the human resources of the organization.

ii)                 Authority: The concepts of Authority and responsibility are closely related. Authority was defined by Fayol as the right to give orders and the power to exact obedience. Responsibility involves being accountable, and is therefore naturally associated with authority. Whoever assumes authority also assumes responsibility.                                       

iii)               Discipline: A successful organization requires the common effort of workers. Penalties should be applied judiciously to encourage this common effort.                                            

iv)               Unity of Command: Workers should receive orders from only one manager.                      

v)                  Unity of Direction: The entire organization should be moving towards a common objective in a common direction.                                                                                            

vi)               Subordination of individual interests to the general interests: The interests of one person should not take priority over the interests of the organization as a whole.

vii)             Remuneration: Many variables, such as cost of living, supply of qualified personnel, general business conditions, and success of the business, should be considered in determining a worker’s rate of pay.                                                                                         

viii)           Centralization: Fayol defined centralization as lowering the importance of the subordinate role. Decentralization is increasing the importance. The degree to which centralization or decentralization should be adopted depends on the specific organization in which the manager is working.                                                                                                                

ix)               Scalar Chain: Managers in hierarchies are part of a chain like authority scale. Each manager, from the first line supervisor to the president, possess certain amounts of authority. The President possesses the most authority; the first line supervisor the least. Lower level managers should always keep upper level managers informed of their work activities. The existence of a scalar chain and adherence to it are necessary if the organization is to be successful.                                                                                          

x)                  Order: For the sake of efficiency and coordination, all materials and people related to a specific kind of work should be treated as equally as possible.                                             

xi)               Equity: All employees should be treated as equally as possible.                                           

xii)             Stability of Tenure of Personnel: Retaining productive employees should always be a high priority of management. Recruitment and Selection Costs, as well as increased product-reject rates are usually associated with hiring new workers.                                     

xiii)           Initiative: Management should take steps to encourage worker initiative, which is defined as new or additional work activity undertaken through self-direction                                    

xiv)           Espirit De Corps: Management should encourage harmony and general good feelings among employees.

Bureaucratic Management Theory (1930-1950)

This theory was propagated by Max Weber, a sociologist who reacted to the abuses of power by people in managerial positions. He recommended an organisational system that would be run by rules and regulations he referred to as Bureaucracy.

Bureaucracy emphasizes order, systems, rationality, uniformity and consistency. Weber believed that the most efficient and effective organization had a hierarchical structure based on formal authority. Weber focused on dividing organizations into hierarchies, establishing strong lines of authority and control. He suggested organizations develop comprehensive and detailed standard operating procedures for all routinized tasks. Some of the outstanding characteristics of Bureaucracy according to Weber are:

a)      Clear division of labour (by functional specialisation).

b)      Employment decisions based on Merit.

c)      Formal Hierarchy of authority.

d)      Job and Job holder remain separate/Autonomous Decisions by Office Holders.

e)      Impersonal approaches to all interpersonal activities.

f)       Maintenance of clear written records, constant communication.

g)      Well spelt out rules and regulations governing the conduct of employees.

Human Relations Movement (1930-today)

Unions and government regulations reacted to the rather dehumanizing effects of the scientific, administrative and bureaucratic theories and more attention was given to individuals and their unique capabilities in the organization. A major belief included that the organization would prosper if its workers prospered as well. Human Resource Departments were added to organizations. The behavioural sciences played a strong role in helping to understand the needs of workers and how the needs of the organization and its workers could be better aligned. Various new theories were spawned, many based on the behavioural sciences like theory “X”, “Y” and “Z” and other motivational theories.

With the Human Relations Movement, training programs recognized the need to cultivate supervisory skills such as delegating, career development, motivating, coaching and mentoring, among others.

Contemporary Theories of Management

Contingency Theory

The contingency theory asserts that when managers make a decision, they must take into account all aspects of the current situation and act on those aspects that are key to the situation at hand. For example, the continuing effort to identify the best leadership or management style might now conclude that the best style depends on the situation...

Systems Theory

Systems theory has had a significant effect on management science and understanding organizations. A system is a collection of parts unified to accomplish an overall goal. If one part of the system is removed, the nature of the system is changed as well. For example a functioning car is a system. Remove the battery and you no longer got a working car. A system can be looked at as having inputs, processes, outputs and outcomes. Systems share feedback among each of these four aspects of the systems.

Chaos Theory

As chaotic and random as world events seem today, they seem as chaotic in organizations, too. Yet for decades, managers have acted on the basis that organizational events can always be controlled. Chaos theory recognizes that events indeed are rarely controlled. Many chaos theorists (as do systems theorists) refer to biological systems when explaining their theory. They suggest that systems naturally go to more complexity, and as they do so, these systems become more volatile (or susceptible to cataclysmic events) and must expend more energy to maintain that complexity. As they expend more energy, they seek more structure to maintain stability. This trend continues until the system splits, combines with another complex system or falls apart entirely.

Conclusion

Management thinking and practice have evolved over the last century as a result of increased understanding of human and organisational behaviour, the economic climate and historical context and the changes in generations over time. How employers lead their people and how they solve problems and innovate, are some of the most important aspects of Management to get right. Managers will therefore often blend the various management theories developed over time depending on the context or situation that they are handling at any given time.

References

Tanz Jasob (2003) A Brief History of Management. Available at http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fsb/fsb_archive/2003/10/01/353427/ Retrieved on 9^th May 2017.

McNamara, MBA, PhD (2013) Historical theories of Management. Available at http://managementhelp.org/management/theories.htm. Retrieved on 10^th May 2017.

Harper, Douglas (2014). "Management". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 9^th May 2017.

Ngigi David (2016). Management Functions – Draft (ODEL Module) School of Business, Kenyatta University Publishing Press

Sources of career information

There is presently a large gap between the real and the ideal situation regarding the quality and quantity of career information services. South Africa requires career information and counselling service that is more systems oriented and community based. This is supported by research which showed that a large majority of black students prioritized the need for a career resource centre. There is a great mismatch between the careers most high school graduates choose, and the ones borne out of their natural interest. This is the reason behind great dissatisfaction in their later careers.

 The main reason for this is uninformed choice of vocation immediately after school. In Kenya, interviews conducted by the  Ministry of Education officials and career guidance teachers confirmed that students are simply given careers booklet containing university courses, their prerequisite subjects and cut-off points, instead of career guidance and counselling. This, interestingly, is due to limited skilled human resources as well as time.

The need for career counseling development is to consider holistic issues. With the improved technology and ease of information access, sources of career information have increased. Learners encounter peers and other people with career information from diverse backgrounds as well as cultures. As they enter the formal education, the experiences acquired from the informal sector dominate the learning environment.

The report prepared by the former Ministry of Gender and Women Affairs revealed that there existed high career aspirations. However, there lacked sufficient information about the qualifications or school subjects that students needed to enter their preferred profession. Their main sources of information about career choices tended to be friends as well as others particularly parents. The research advances that based on the information gathered by the students, their decisions are made in a reactive rather than a proactive manner, such as information seeking would involve.

It is important that a teacher builds on information and experiences by harmonizing the appropriate career choice with the student’s experience, ability and goals. This is on the assumption that the diverse experiences learners bring to the educational environment are not contradictory either to the teacher’s objectives or to individual student’s personal expectations.

Peer as a source of information

Peer refers to a group of people with shared traits especially culture and ways of doing things. Peer influence is the influence resulting from such a group encouraging one to either change or strengthen his or her attitudes, values, behaviour and general way of thinking in a bid to conform to the group’s norms.

Peer pressure is one of the single most determining factors as far a career choice among people with a shared culture is concerned. Every generation of students in a given school, and probably even several generations adopt certain courses as the ideal choice. As a result, many of them, including those with no aptitude for some careers, aspire to it often at the expense of equally substantive options that they would better suit and be happier at.

The presence of peers in one’s life highly influences his/her choice on what course to pursue. The social support that peers give to each other either directly or indirectly plays a great role in influencing what course one enrols for training. This influence is especially stronger among youths and young children.

Overworked teachers resulting from overloaded curriculum leaves them with little time to offer career guidance to the students. This is further worsened by the parents who have either little time with their children to offer career guidance or are illiterate as far as career matters are concerned. Students are therefore left in the hands of their fellow peers to offer the necessary career guidance. It remains to be established whether it is the same case with the ECE.

Adolescents often choose a career just because everyone else is doing it. Friends may decide they want to go to the same college and pursue a similar career. They can also decide that in line with their future expectation, they pursue careers that will complement each other in future. This may push a student to pursue a course he/she is either intellectually incapable of handling or a course which one doesn’t have interest on.

Family as a source of information

Family is an important socialisation agent. During socialisation, children learn from both their parents and off springs. Family members especially parents, are the most important role models in the child’s life. This means that every decision that a child makes in his/her life, career included, is guided by these models. Career development is a lifelong process that begins in early childhood years, a period when a family’s influence in one’s life is highly pronounced. Career related decisions that children make during their early school years are very important. With the family being regarded as the most influential part of the child’s life, it is expected that most of the choices a child makes have their bases on the family’s guidance with the parent playing a crucial role on this.

Siblings serve as a primary source of support for career decisions by providing career information, role modelling, and emotional support for career decision making.

Students, through their interaction within the context of family, learn about and explore careers which ultimately lead to their career choice. Parents and other family members provide valuable learning experiences by being role models as well as being supportive in students’ exploration of their career interests. In this respect, children from literate and work-bound parents have been found to enjoy some advantage over their counterparts as far as career support is concerned.

Parental pressure has direct influence too. If a parent exerts enough pressure on his/her child to pursue a particular course a time when the child didn’t have plans on the same, then there is a high likelihood that the child will follow the parent’s suggestion. This sometimes is beneficial to students especially those who don’t take time as well as have an ability to conduct career research. Although career choice planning is the primary the responsibility of a student, education level of parents might lead students in a particular career path.

Career experts

Various career development strategies can be put in place to help students set up a career path.  These strategies include career guidance, career counselling, career information, career education, career development programme and career coaching. The interventions strategies help students to develop self-awareness, occupational awareness, learn career decision making skills, job search skills, cope with job stress, adjust and implement after having made a choice, problem solving skills and others.

It is essential that there is a need for school guidance programme that would positively impact student career development. Career counsellors play a key role in developing and implementing career activities among students to facilitate their career development. Making career development a priority and activities to facilitate career development an integral part of any school guidance program should be the goal.

The role of career counsellors in schools in general, include facilitation of career decision-making process through provision of careers’ information, enhancing clarity of personal values, interests, skills and abilities as well as facilitating confidence in decision making. This will consequently boost self-confidence and ability to make appropriate career decisions. There has been a concern where most students and other young adults find it hard to acquire adequate career information. This is because rather than schools having professional counsellors, teachers have been turned into career counsellors. The implication is that many students graduate from high school with little information concerning the careers they intended to pursue. Counsellors are known to help students examine their interests, styles and their abilities so as to determine which profession best suit them. They are also known to be helpful to students who were yet to decide on a career as well as those who might be unhappy with their choices. In addition, career experts also assist people in learning new skills and abilities related to managing and directing their careers and work life. Experts invest a valuable amount of time, energy and expertise in aiding students in career decision making as well as assisting people in career discovery. They help students in identifying potential role models, with whom they might develop supportive, value adding relationships.