Sources of career information

There is presently a large gap between the real and the ideal situation regarding the quality and quantity of career information services. South Africa requires career information and counselling service that is more systems oriented and community based. This is supported by research which showed that a large majority of black students prioritized the need for a career resource centre. There is a great mismatch between the careers most high school graduates choose, and the ones borne out of their natural interest. This is the reason behind great dissatisfaction in their later careers.

 The main reason for this is uninformed choice of vocation immediately after school. In Kenya, interviews conducted by the  Ministry of Education officials and career guidance teachers confirmed that students are simply given careers booklet containing university courses, their prerequisite subjects and cut-off points, instead of career guidance and counselling. This, interestingly, is due to limited skilled human resources as well as time.

The need for career counseling development is to consider holistic issues. With the improved technology and ease of information access, sources of career information have increased. Learners encounter peers and other people with career information from diverse backgrounds as well as cultures. As they enter the formal education, the experiences acquired from the informal sector dominate the learning environment.

The report prepared by the former Ministry of Gender and Women Affairs revealed that there existed high career aspirations. However, there lacked sufficient information about the qualifications or school subjects that students needed to enter their preferred profession. Their main sources of information about career choices tended to be friends as well as others particularly parents. The research advances that based on the information gathered by the students, their decisions are made in a reactive rather than a proactive manner, such as information seeking would involve.

It is important that a teacher builds on information and experiences by harmonizing the appropriate career choice with the student’s experience, ability and goals. This is on the assumption that the diverse experiences learners bring to the educational environment are not contradictory either to the teacher’s objectives or to individual student’s personal expectations.

Peer as a source of information

Peer refers to a group of people with shared traits especially culture and ways of doing things. Peer influence is the influence resulting from such a group encouraging one to either change or strengthen his or her attitudes, values, behaviour and general way of thinking in a bid to conform to the group’s norms.

Peer pressure is one of the single most determining factors as far a career choice among people with a shared culture is concerned. Every generation of students in a given school, and probably even several generations adopt certain courses as the ideal choice. As a result, many of them, including those with no aptitude for some careers, aspire to it often at the expense of equally substantive options that they would better suit and be happier at.

The presence of peers in one’s life highly influences his/her choice on what course to pursue. The social support that peers give to each other either directly or indirectly plays a great role in influencing what course one enrols for training. This influence is especially stronger among youths and young children.

Overworked teachers resulting from overloaded curriculum leaves them with little time to offer career guidance to the students. This is further worsened by the parents who have either little time with their children to offer career guidance or are illiterate as far as career matters are concerned. Students are therefore left in the hands of their fellow peers to offer the necessary career guidance. It remains to be established whether it is the same case with the ECE.

Adolescents often choose a career just because everyone else is doing it. Friends may decide they want to go to the same college and pursue a similar career. They can also decide that in line with their future expectation, they pursue careers that will complement each other in future. This may push a student to pursue a course he/she is either intellectually incapable of handling or a course which one doesn’t have interest on.

Family as a source of information

Family is an important socialisation agent. During socialisation, children learn from both their parents and off springs. Family members especially parents, are the most important role models in the child’s life. This means that every decision that a child makes in his/her life, career included, is guided by these models. Career development is a lifelong process that begins in early childhood years, a period when a family’s influence in one’s life is highly pronounced. Career related decisions that children make during their early school years are very important. With the family being regarded as the most influential part of the child’s life, it is expected that most of the choices a child makes have their bases on the family’s guidance with the parent playing a crucial role on this.

Siblings serve as a primary source of support for career decisions by providing career information, role modelling, and emotional support for career decision making.

Students, through their interaction within the context of family, learn about and explore careers which ultimately lead to their career choice. Parents and other family members provide valuable learning experiences by being role models as well as being supportive in students’ exploration of their career interests. In this respect, children from literate and work-bound parents have been found to enjoy some advantage over their counterparts as far as career support is concerned.

Parental pressure has direct influence too. If a parent exerts enough pressure on his/her child to pursue a particular course a time when the child didn’t have plans on the same, then there is a high likelihood that the child will follow the parent’s suggestion. This sometimes is beneficial to students especially those who don’t take time as well as have an ability to conduct career research. Although career choice planning is the primary the responsibility of a student, education level of parents might lead students in a particular career path.

Career experts

Various career development strategies can be put in place to help students set up a career path.  These strategies include career guidance, career counselling, career information, career education, career development programme and career coaching. The interventions strategies help students to develop self-awareness, occupational awareness, learn career decision making skills, job search skills, cope with job stress, adjust and implement after having made a choice, problem solving skills and others.

It is essential that there is a need for school guidance programme that would positively impact student career development. Career counsellors play a key role in developing and implementing career activities among students to facilitate their career development. Making career development a priority and activities to facilitate career development an integral part of any school guidance program should be the goal.

The role of career counsellors in schools in general, include facilitation of career decision-making process through provision of careers’ information, enhancing clarity of personal values, interests, skills and abilities as well as facilitating confidence in decision making. This will consequently boost self-confidence and ability to make appropriate career decisions. There has been a concern where most students and other young adults find it hard to acquire adequate career information. This is because rather than schools having professional counsellors, teachers have been turned into career counsellors. The implication is that many students graduate from high school with little information concerning the careers they intended to pursue. Counsellors are known to help students examine their interests, styles and their abilities so as to determine which profession best suit them. They are also known to be helpful to students who were yet to decide on a career as well as those who might be unhappy with their choices. In addition, career experts also assist people in learning new skills and abilities related to managing and directing their careers and work life. Experts invest a valuable amount of time, energy and expertise in aiding students in career decision making as well as assisting people in career discovery. They help students in identifying potential role models, with whom they might develop supportive, value adding relationships.

Factors Influencing Male participattion in Early Childhood Education

Personal factors

Research has shown that there are various individual factors that may influence career choice. However there has been no specific research targeting a career choice in early childhood education. To begin with, individual perceptions of the ideal job one  intends to engage in sometimes in the future has been found to influence on the  decision on which course to pursue. Every individual has an idea of what a perfect job is and that determines the career they are to pursue. Student’s perception towards their environment, personality, and opportunity highly determine the career choices they make.

Rosenstock & Steinberg, cited in O’Brien, (1996) explain that individual’s job maturity affects one’s choice for a career. Job maturity is determined by how well a student possesses information about the job he intends to pursue in future. Depending on the maturity, every student carries the unique history of his/her past that determines how they view the world and how willing they are to seek information regarding that particular job.

It is therefore important to note that this maturity is in part as a result of the student’s environment, personality and opportunity.

Career decision has its basis on early years of an individual’s life. In support of this, Super, Savicks, & Super (1996), purport that an individual’s initial career decision-making is a cultural and developmental task that adolescents are expected to have accomplished by the end of their high school years. Trice and McClellan (1994) in their research found out that approximately 23% of adults aged 40-55 had made their career decisions during their childhood. Helwig (2001) concurs with the above by asserting that elementary aged children hold career goals that they intend to pursue. He advances that some of these goals are typically unattainable for the large part of the population.

Such career related beliefs imply that they may be inadvertently and needlessly restricting an individual’s future career options. One of the reasons behind this is the fact that they have inadequate information regarding careers they intend to pursue, and therefore a need for guidance. This is where ones family comes in to help children in making such decisions and ensuring that they don’t restrict themselves career wise. This helps them to avoid inappropriate career choices. (Gottfredson, 1981)

Splayer (1977) contends that individual’s self-understanding plays a vital role in determining career choice. According to him, it is always very important for students to have a good understanding of themselves and their personality if they are to make intelligent career plans. These include having knowledge on what they are and what they would like to become in the future. The personality factors to be considered include mental abilities, special abilities, and interests. According to Splaver, mental abilities such as verbal comprehension, word fluency, spatial ability, numerical ability, reasoning ability and memory determines what career one intends to pursue.

Worth noting is the fact that mental ability plays a great role in academic performance that restricts one to certain courses. Splaver advances that students need to be conscious about their personality as well as intellectual abilities while planning on the courses to pursue.  Harris and Jones (1997), agree to this explaining that in developing a career plan, individuals need to carry out an evaluation of own personality including abilities through self-assessment and communication with others.

Self-knowledge has been pivotal in career development (Anderson, 1995). There have been many examples to describe the process of self-knowledge. One example would be a student’s critical look at life’s experiences to enhance their self-knowledge. Another example would be students using problem-based learning to gain insight into self-knowledge (Lankard and Brown, 1996). According to the National Commission Site, (1989), every individual shares some factors also known as constructs. These constructs are personality traits that become valuable when choosing a career. The formation of these constructs are influenced by factors most notably the environment, such as our formal education. How well an individual forms constructs on careers determines his/her ability to set up a career path which begins with enrolling for a course.

Future expectations in terms of the benefits associated with a particular career determine what students’ choices. The salary expected from a career may either discourage students from pursuing it or encourage them. Ghorbani’s (2008) survey found that participants held impractical expectations towards their projected salaries during their first year of teaching. The survey for instance singled out men as placing a strong emphasis on the importance of money in determining their job satisfaction. Consequently, Ghorbani argues that administrator’s salaries tend to tempt men from the classroom to managerial positions, or possibly leaving education altogether. Ghorbani further proposes that the presence of financially struggling teachers will scare away individuals from a teaching career mostly men.

This implies that some of these challenges faced by men in ECDE tend to discourage–them from pursuing the course. However with ECE professionals hardly getting salary commensurate to their qualification, there remains to be established whether salary expectations remains a factor influencing men to enrol for a career in ECE.

Craig d'Arcy (2008) in his study presents a different scenario. He contends that there are special factors that attract individuals to enrol for specific courses. In the study, Craig d'Arcy found that a lot of men who choose early childhood education as a career had prior experiences in the field which they intended to bring on board. For instance one of the male participants explained that he was motivated into the field after having children of his own as well as having an intention of portraying that men too have much to offer in rearing children. He therefore concludes that prior experience with children, being parent as well as wanting to help children learn and develop appropriately, influenced males to enter and be sustained in early childhood as a career (DeCorse and Vogtle, 1997). This brings in the role of cultural socialization in child rearing. The African culture has socialized women to be child nurturers, while men on the other hand become bread winners. This leaves men at risk of being outpaced from the field of early childhood education early in life. However, the situation in Kenya seems to be different where discrimination, low pay and the low status are accorded to those working in ECE. It however remains to be established whether these practitioners would envy the experience they garner from the field.

Another personal factor likely to influence an individual’s career choice is one’s family. Leong (1993) found that Asian Americans do not always choose a career based on their own interests or intentions but on the family’s decision and expectation. He observed that the younger generations feel obliged to carry on the family tradition and accomplish the wishes of the older generation. This forces students into careers that advance their family’s interests as opposed to their own.

In a study on role models’ influence on the career decisiveness of college students, Perrone, (2001) concludes that role model supportiveness as well as quality of relationship highly contributes to a career a student decides to pursue. This shows how important one’s friends have on their choice on career.

Whether these personal factors are directly linked to student’s choice to pursue a course in ECE remains to be established, while what would motivate a family to guide one of their own towards a course where men are facing such challenges is still not clear.

Economic factors

Research has established that the economic status of an individual or his/her family has great influence on a student’s choice to enrol for a course. Economic status refers to economic situation of individuals and the society in general. According to Fergusson & Woodward, (2000) a very strong relationship exists between economic status and occupational choice. Bandura, Barbaranelli, Caprara, &Pastorelli (2001), advance that every individual in the process of making a career decision is influenced by the social context we live in as well as the economic status of the entire society. They further explain that social and economic circumstances of a broader community highly affect youth's perceptions towards a certain career. Worth noting is the fact that the impact of poverty is felt from the early age. According to Purcell-Gates, McIntyre, & Freppon, (1995) children from low-Social Economic Status families often begin kindergarten with significantly less linguistic knowledge. This also tends to impact negatively on a student’s general performance, which if no intervention is made in good time, may deny a student an opportunity to pursue certain careers.

Poverty has a direct influence on the choice of a career. For instance, students from poor backgrounds have had to opt for cheaper courses just because they cannot afford certain courses. Such students are blocked from pursuing certain courses, not because of their intellectual inability but because they can’t pay for the course.

An individual’s residence is another factor that influences career choice, Oyamo and Amoth (2008). They advance that students from rural homes tend to seek help from their parents more than their counterparts from the urban areas. This is exacerbated by the fact that parents more than teachers, play a major role when it comes to students making decisions about careers.

The economic status of the wider society also determines the availability of opportunities in the society from which students make career decisions. It is worth noting that students will most likely direct their thinking along a career perceived to place them at a better position of getting a job in the society. The argument here is that when there are employment opportunities in the ECE sector within the society, many will form favourable perception and this would attract more students to ECE. Poverty has partly contributed to the availability of opportunities within the society. Where the poverty levels are high, employment opportunities are low and vice versa. The income level of the community may determine what career a student chooses. Some students will have to plan and prepare for a career according to their family’s income level. This is because some courses are more expensive compared to others. (Pastorelli, 2001)

Need for career guidance is highly influenced by the social economic status. On this, Thout (1969) explains that social and economic status determines whether one needs career guidance or not. He advances that those in desperate economic status mostly labelled as living below the poverty line need to be assisted through special training programmes. The purpose would be to help them overcome educational and social challenges in order to attain minimum job standards. The implication is that such student’s decision will be based on the guidance through these training programmes. It is also argued that students from low socioeconomic background have parents who are semi illiterate or completely illiterate. These parents are not in a position to guide their children adequately on which course to pursue. Such children are also limited in terms of opportunities to meet the cost associated with such guidance. They also have limited knowledge on availability and need for career guidance.

According to Donald (2007), availability of career support facilities is another factor that is affected by the economic status which subsequently affects career choice. For instance, availability and ability to access career support groups is dependent on one’s economic status. Research has clearly shown that once properly utilized, these support groups turn up to be good opportunity that can help students in making good choices concerning the course to pursue.

Finally, is the government of Kenya’s admission and placement policy. Wabwoba, F and Fullgence M. Mwakondo, (2011) points out that every year, the Joint Admission Board (JAB) currently the Kenya Universities and Colleges Placement Services, is tasked with determining which students should join various Kenyan public universities under the government sponsorship scheme. According to Wabwoba, F et al (2011) this is an extensive exercise given the large number of qualified students all competing to benefit from the  funding by the government as well as the limited available slots. They further state that the selection is made more complicated by the fact that it is done against a predefined cluster of subjects in relation to the student’s preference.

 Minimum requirements exist for each course, and only students with the prescribed grades in specific subjects are eligible to pursue that course. Due to this, students are often admitted to courses they consider irrelevant to their career prospects. This further affects job satisfaction as well as career establishment. This is because, these students ends up pursuing courses that aren’t in line with their interest.

However, men are still training for a career in ECE. It still remains to be established whether, the above discussed economic factors are the same factors that influence the student’s choice to enrol for training in ECE.