ICT and Early Childhood Education: A literature review

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has become an important part of most organizations and businesses these days (Zhang & Aikman, 2007). The education sector has not been left behind. Computers began to be placed in schools in the early 1980s in some developed countries, and several researchers suggest that ICT will be an important part of education for the next generation. Modern technology offers many means of improving teaching and learning in the classroom (Lefebvre, Deaudelin & Loiselle, 2006). New technologies have the potential to support education across the curriculum and provide opportunities for effective communication between teachers and students in ways that have not been possible before (Dawes, 2001). ICT in education has the potential to be influential in bringing about changes in ways of teaching.

In this chapter the researcher will explore existing literature on how ICTs can be used in the training of teachers and possible shortcomings of the process. 

Technology and Early Childhood

The definition of technology tools encompasses a broad range of digital devices such as computers, tablets, multi-touch screens, interactive whiteboards, mobile devices, cameras, DVD and music players, audio recorders, electronic toys, games, e-book readers, and older analogue devices still being used such as tape recorders, VCRs, VHS tapes, record and cassette players, light tables, projectors, and microscopes.

Young children live in a world of interactive media. They are growing up at ease with digital devices that are rapidly becoming the tools of the culture at home, at school, at work, and in the community (NAEYC 2012). Technology tools for communication, collaboration, social networking, and user-generated content have transformed mainstream culture. In particular, these tools have transformed how parents and families manage their daily lives and seek out entertainment, how teachers use materials in the classroom with young children and communicate with parents and families, and how we deliver teacher education and professional development (Lefebvre, Deaudelin & Loiselle, 2006). The pace of change is so rapid that society is experiencing a disruption almost as significant as when there was a shift from oral language to print literacy, and again when the printing press expanded access to books and the printed word. The shift to new media literacies and the need for digital literacy that encompasses both technology and media literacy will continue to shape the world in which young children are developing and learning (Linebarger & Piotrowski 2009; Flewitt 2011).

The prevalence of electronic media in the lives of young children means that they are spending an increasing number of hours per week in front of and engaged with screens of all kinds, including televisions, computers, smartphones, tablets, handheld game devices, and game consoles (NAEYC 2012). The distinction among the devices, the content, and the user experience has been blurred by multi-touch screens and movement-activated technologies that detect and respond to the child’s movements. With guidance, these various technology tools can be harnessed for learning and development; without guidance, usage can be inappropriate and/or interfere with learning and development.

There are concerns about whether young children should have access to technology and screen media in early childhood programs.

Several professional and public health organizations and child advocacy groups concerned  with child development and health issues such as obesity have recommended that passive, non-interactive technology and screen media not be used in early childhood programs and that there be no screen time for infants and toddlers.

Technology and interactive media are tools that can promote effective learning and development when they are used intentionally by early childhood educators, within the framework of developmentally appropriate practice, to support learning goals established for individual children (NAEYC 2009). The framework of developmentally appropriate practice begins with knowledge about what children of the age and developmental status represented in a particular group are typically like. This knowledge provides a general idea of the activities, routines, interactions, and curriculum that should be effective. Each child in the particular group is then considered both as an individual and within the context of that child’s specific family, community, culture, linguistic norms, social group, past experience (including learning and behaviour), and current circumstances (www.naeyc.org/dap/core; retrieved November 2, 2012).

Children’s experiences with technology and interactive media are increasingly part of the context of their lives, which must be considered as part of the developmentally appropriate framework. To make informed decisions regarding the intentional use of technology and interactive media in ways that support children’s learning and development, early childhood teachers and staff need information and resources on the nature of these tools and the implications of their use with children.

Approaches to ICT integration in Teacher Education

Use of ICT within teacher training programs around the world is being approached in a number of different ways with varying degrees of success (Khirwadkar, 2011). These approaches were subsequently described, refined and merged into following approaches:

1. ICT skills development approach: Here importance is given to providing training in use of ICT in general. Student teachers are expected to be skilled users of ICT for their daily activities. Knowledge on various software, hardware and their use in educational process is provided.

2. ICT pedagogy approach: Emphasis is on integrating ICT skills in a respective subject. Drawing on the principles of constructivism, pre-service teachers design lessons and activities that centre on the use of ICT tools that will foster the attainment of learning outcomes. This approach is useful to the extent that the skills enhance ICT literacy skills and the underlying pedagogy allows students to further develop and maintain these skills in the context of designing classroom- based resources.

3. Subject-specific approach: Here ICT is embedded into one’s own subject area. By this method, teachers/subject experts are not only exposing students to new and innovative ways of learning but are providing them with a practical understanding of what learning and teaching with ICT looks and feels like. In this way, ICT is not an 'add on' but an integral tool that is accessed by teachers and students across a wide range of the curricula.

4. Practice driven approach: Here emphasis is on providing exposure to the use of ICT in practical aspects of teacher training. Focus is on developing lessons and assignments. Using ICT and implementing it in their work experience at various levels provides students an opportunity to assess the facilities available at their school and effectively use their own skills.

Thus, ICT in teacher training can take many forms. Teachers can be trained to learn how to use ICT tools. ICT can be used as a core or a complementary means to the teacher training process (Collis & Jung, 2003). The various ways in which ICT teacher training efforts could be classified into four categories are shown below in Figure 1.

From the above suggested approaches, regarding ICT as a core component at the pre-service level, integration of all approaches would help in developing proper attributes among prospective teachers. There should be joint efforts of educators and prospective teachers in implementing and sharpening ICT skills. Whatever approach is followed in educational institutions to develop knowledge about ICT, it has inherent limitations. Coupled with other reasons, we are not making student teachers fully confident in using ICT in their daily classroom activities. As reported by Larose F. in their study, the level of computer literacy of the teaching staff is satisfactory but there is little transfer of these competencies to teaching practices (Larose F., et al. 1999). Efforts are required on the part of teachers to make use of the available facilities for the best use in teaching /learning.

Barriers to Integration of ICT into Education

The act of integrating ICT into teaching and learning is a complex process and one may encounter a number of difficulties. According to Becta (2004) the barriers to integrating ICT in education can be grouped as teacher-level barriers such as lack of time, lack of confidence and resistance to change or school-level barriers such as lack of effective training in solving technical problems and lack of access to resources.

Teacher-level barriers

Lack of teacher confidence:  One barrier that prevents teachers from using ICT in their teaching is lack of confidence.  Some studies have investigated the reasons for teacher’s lack of confidence with the use of ICT. Beggs (2000) asserted that teachers’ “fear of failure” caused a lack of confidence. Balanskat et al (2006) on the other hand found that limitations in teachers’ ICT knowledge makes them feel anxious about using ICT in the classroom and thus not confident to use it in their teaching. Becta (2004) also concluded that many teachers, who do not consider themselves to be well skilled in using ICT feel anxious about using it in front of a class of children who perhaps know more than they do. Many teachers are particularly afraid of entering the classroom with limited knowledge in the area of ICT with their students knowing that this was the case. Lack of confidence and experience with technology influence teachers’ motivation to use ICT in the classroom (Balanskat et al 2006).

On the other hand, teachers who confidently use technologies in their classrooms understand the usefulness of ICT. Teachers who have confidence in using ICT identify that technologies are helpful in their teaching and personal work and they need to extend their use further in the future (Bingimlas, 2009).

Lack of teacher competence: Another barrier which is directly related to teacher confidence, is teachers’ competence in integrating ICT into pedagogical practice (Becta, 2004). Newhouse (2002) found that many teachers lacked knowledge and skills to use computers and were not enthusiastic about the changes and integration of supplementary learning associated with bringing computers into their teaching practices. Current research has shown that the level of this barrier differs from country to country. In the developing countries, teachers’ lack of technological competence is a main barrier to their acceptance of ICT (Pelgrum, 2001; Al-Oteawi, 2002). According to Blanskat (2006), in Denmark, many teachers still choose not to use ICT and media in teaching situations because of their lack of ICT skills rather than for pedagogical reasons.

Resistance to change and negative attitudes: Teachers’ attitudes and an inherent resistance to change are a significant barrier to the integration of ICT into education (Balanskat et al, 2006). Watson (1999) argued that integrating new technologies into educational settings requires change and different teachers will handle this change differently. According to Watson, considering teachers’ attitudes towards the new technologies and to change is important because teachers’ beliefs influence what they do in classrooms. According to Becta (2004), one key area of teachers’ attitudes towards the use of technologies is their understanding of how these technologies will benefit their teaching and their students’ learning. Cox et al (1999) found that teachers are unlikely to use new technologies in their teaching if they see no need to change their professional practice. They showed that teachers who resist change are not rejecting the need for change but lack the the necessary education in accepting the changes and are given insufficient long-term opportunities to make sense of the new technologies for themselves.

School level barriers

Lack of time: The problem of lack of time exists for teachers in many aspects of their work as it affects their ability to complete tasks, lack of time to plan technology lessons, explore the different internet sites or look at various aspects of educational software (Becta, 2004). Teachers are also pressed for time to locate internet advice, prepare lessons, explore and practise using the technology, deal with technical problems and receive adequate training.

In Kenya most teachers teach from 7:00 A.M to 5:00 P.M and the average number of class sessions is twenty hours per week. Both teachers and students have limited hours during the day to work on integrating ICT into ECD teacher training. Teachers also take much more time to design projects that include ICT than to prepare traditional lessons.

Lack of effective training: There are not enough training opportunities for teachers in the use of ICTs in a classroom environment. According to Becta (2004) the issue of training is certainly complex because it is important to consider several components to ensure the effectiveness of the training.  These were time for training, pedagogical training, skills training and an ICT use in initial teacher training.

Providing pedagogical training for teachers, rather than simply training them to use ICT tools, is an important issue (Becta, 2004). If teachers are to be convinced of the value of using ICT in their teaching, their training should focus on the pedagogical issues. Many teachers courses focus on teachers acquiring basic ICT skills and did not often teach teachers how to develop the pedagogical aspects of ICT.

Lack of accessibility: Pelgrum (2001) identifies from his research the main obstacles to  the accessibility of ICTs inn schools. These were insufficient numbers of computers, insufficient peripherals such as printers, insufficient numbers of copies of software and insufficient simultaneous internet access. However, Balanskat et al (2006) argues that the accessibility of ICT resources does not guarantee its successful implementation in teaching, and this is not merely because of the lack of ICT infrastructure but also because of other barriers such as lack of high quality hardware, suitable educational software and access to ICT resources. Poor choices of hardware and software and a lack of consideration of what is suitable for classroom teaching are problems facing many teachers.

Lack of technical support: Lack of technical assistance is one of the top barriers to ICT us in education. Without both good technical support in the classroom and whole-school resources, teachers cannot be expected to overcome barriers preventing them from using ICTs (Lewis, 2003; Pelgrum, 2001). These technical barriers may include waiting for websites to open, failing to connect to the internet, computers and printers malfunctioning and teachers having to work on old computers. Technical barriers impede the smooth delivery of the lesson or the natural flow of the classroom activity. Technical faults discourage teachers from using ICT in their teaching because of fear of equipment breaking down during a lesson (Bingimlas, 2009).

Other barriers identified by a wide range of other researches include lack of computers, lack of quality software, lack of time, technical problems, teachers’ attitudes towards computers, poor funding, lack of teacher confidence, resistance to change, poor administrative support, lack of computer skills, poor fit with the curriculum, lack of incentives, scheduling difficulties, poor training opportunities and lack of skills on how to integrate ICT in education.

Benefits of Integrating Technology in Education

The benefits of technology in education have been lauded for many years, from

Thomas Edison’s 1910 proclamation that film would transform education, making books obsolete (Israel, 1998, p. 442) to the most recent phenomenon of using the Internet for instructional purposes. Large sums of money have been spent over the years on the researching and investment of new technologies for education, such as the 170 million dollars spent in the 1950’s on testing the use of television for educational purposes by the Ford

Foundation in the US, to the more recent investments in computer and networking infrastructure in schools which saw 40 billion dollars spent in the decade leading up to 2003 alone. With so much promised and invested, the question begs as to what the benefits of using technology in education are. Saba A. (2009) identifies some of the benefits of using technology in education as the following:

Technology Improves Student Achievement on Tests

There is mounting evidence that technology improves student achievement on tests in both core subject areas as well as general knowledge. One of the major areas in which greater achievement has been seen is in math.

Evidence that computers in education lead to improved achievement is not only found in the subject of mathematics. Significantly higher test scores and grades for writing, English-language arts, mathematics, and overall Grade Point Averages (GPAs) were found among students who used technology in their study (Gulek, 2005).

Gains in test achievement are not only seen as a result of using technology to study, but also in the use of technology for assessment, particularly for students with special needs.

Students that have physical and learning disabilities may underperform on tests not because they have not mastered the content, but possibly because of the format through which the test is administered (Dolan, 2005).

Technology Improves the Quality of Student Work

Research supports that technology has the potential to improve quantitative assessment performance in all curriculum subjects. However, there is also mounting evidence that technology not only has a quantitative advantage over traditional methods, but also leads to qualitative improvements; resulting in higher-quality student work.

The Harvest Park Middle school found that “students who use computers when learning to write are not only more engaged and motivated in their writing, but also produce work that is of greater length and higher quality, especially at the secondary level” (Gulek, 2005, pg. 29).

Improvement in writing when utilizing technology is especially evident with regard to students with special needs and low-achievers. Such students appear to improve even more than both average students and high-achievers when doing so via word processor rather than with conventional Instructional methods (Hannafin, 1987).

Technology Benefits Students with Special Needs

Improved writing is not the only area in which students with special needs benefit from technology. One study found that students with Dyslexia improved significantly in reading ability when a computer remediation program, Fast ForWord Language, was used and that in some cases dyslexic student scores were raised into the normal range (Temple, 2003). It was found that such remediation led to “improved language, reading performance and increased activation in multiple brain regions during phonological processing” (Temple, 2003).

Technology Benefits At-Risk Students

Another group that benefits greatly from learning with technology is at-risk students.

The Pittsburgh (PUMP) study found that students that may normally be disruptive in the classroom are more engaged and cooperative when using technology to learn (Koedinger, 1997). It concluded that technology makes them more engaged and leads to better learning and better attitudes towards learning.

Technology Improves Attitudes towards Learning

Many research studies have found that most students prefer learning with technology, which in turn leads to a better attitude towards learning as well as giving them more confidence. In the Cognitive Tutor study, students were found to be more likely to say that mathematics is useful outside the academic context and to feel more confident in mathematics than students in traditional classes (Morgan, 2002). Students in the Freedom to Learn study were found to believe that technology “made it easier to do school work, made them more interested in learning, and would help them get better jobs in the future” (Lowther, 2007). The students with special needs in the Fast ForWord study, similarly, felt that they did better on computer based tests and nearly all recommended the program for other students (Dolan, 2005).

Although many studies find that student attitude towards learning improves using technology, some studies have not found significant difference in student attitude or motivation (Funkhouser, Winter 2003). However, most research tends to support the correlation of improved attitude with technology use.

Technology Provides Individualized Learning

One aspect which may contribute to improved attitude towards learning is that many uses of technology in learning allow for individualized learning. Computer Aided Instruction, especially when used for drill and practice as a tool for teaching in a traditional sense, allows students to take control of the rate of learning and helps them to avoid embarrassment by allowing them to learn and make mistakes in a non-public manner. Students know right away that they are making progress and having success at a challenging task. Further, because the system does not make a big deal out of errors, students do not feel the social stigma associated with making an error in class or on homework. Errors are a private event that are usually quickly resolved and the student is then back to making progress. (Koedinger, 1997)

Moreover, such computer assisted instruction provides feedback immediately which leads to reductions in learning time (Koedinger, 1997). This is very likely to be a key element in making students feel more confident as well as leading to better attitudes towards learning.

Such feedback reduces student frustration and provides a sense of accomplishment (Koedinger, 1997).

Teachers also benefit from the way the tutor programs accommodate a large number of questions students have. This frees them up “to give more individualized help to students with particular needs” (Koedinger, 1997) – which in turn benefits students with special needs and who are at risk.

Technology Acts as a Catalyst for Change

One of the greatest areas in which technology has the potential to benefit education is its role in being a catalyst for change in educational pedagogy. Research shows that student centred constructivist approaches to education lead to better achievement in testing as well as preparing students with the skills necessary in the modern workplace. One study done in

Turkey found that students who learned in a classroom with a constructivist approach to learning showed greater cooperation and collaboration, higher levels of learning, more confidence, and more willingness to participate in learning activities (Erdamar, 2008).

Other studies have found that student centered learning leads to better performance on tests and greater retention of knowledge immediately after learning as well as 30 days after learning (Karaduman, 2002).

Technology on its own will probably not be the determining factor in bringing about such change. As one study concluded, simply having computers in the room is not necessarily going to lead to student centred learning, indeed teachers may not even use the computer (Norton, 2000).

Technology Prepares Students for the Future

The future workplace will require students to have skills related to technology including the technical ability to use spreadsheets, word processors, databases and such. By having and working with technology in schools, students gain the skills that they will need to be marketable in the future workplace and to operate in a high-tech world. However, these technical skills are not enough. The modern workplace requires that one have less tangible skills including the ability to collaborate with others, interpersonal skills, creativity, and problem solving skills, to name a few. Technology, combined with a student centered constructivist mode of learning, has the potential to provide students with these higher-level cognitive and interpersonal skills.

The advantages of such a combination have been well documented in The Freedom to Learn study. By having a 1:1 ratio of students to computers and using a student centered learning approach, along with professional development of teachers and administrators, most of the barriers to full integration were overcome. As a result, students in the program used software more often than that of the national norm, engaged in meaningful computer activities, did independent research and engaged in project based learning (Lowther, 2007).

They also “exhibited a significantly higher ability in demonstrating understanding of the problem and in identifying what needs to be known to solve the problem” (Lowther, 2007, pg. 5). According to the report, they also have a significant advantage when it comes to doing presentations and using the Internet over students, who were not in the program (Lowther,

2007).

Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI)

CAI refers to the use of the computer as a tool to facilitate and improve instruction. CAI programs use tutorials, drill and practice, simulation, and problem solving approaches to present topics, and they test the student's understanding.

CAI uses a combination of text, graphics, sound and video in enhancing the learning process. The computer has many purposes in the classroom, and it can be utilized to help a student in all areas of the curriculum. (http://wikieducator.org/Computer_Assisted_Instruction_(CAI) Retrieved 29th October 2012)

Use of computer in education is referred by many names such as; Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI), Computer Aided Instruction (CAI), Computer Assisted Learning (CAL), Computer Based Education (CBE), Computer Based Instruction (CBI), Computer Enriched Instruction (CEI) and Computer Managed Instruction (CMI). Other emerging terminologies include; Web Based Training, Web Based Learning and Web Based Instruction.

Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) is an interactive instructional technique whereby a computer is used to present the instructional material and monitor the learning that takes place.

Computer-based education (CBE) and computer-based instruction (CBI) are the broadest terms and can refer to virtually any kind of computer use in educational settings. Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) Computer Aided Instruction (CAI) is a narrower term and most often refers to drill-and-practice, tutorial, or simulation activities. Computer-managed instruction (CMI) is an instructional strategy whereby the computer is used to provide learning objectives, learning resources, record keeping, progress tracking, and assessment of learner performance. Computer based tools and applications are used to assist the teacher or school administrator in the management of the learner and instructional process.

Typical CAI provides; a Text or multimedia content, Multiple-choice question, Problems, Immediate feedback, Notes on incorrect responses, summarizes students' performance, Exercises for practice and Worksheets and tests.

Types of Computer Assisted Instruction

1. Drill-and-practice Drill and practice provide opportunities or students to repeatedly practice the skills that have previously been presented and that further practice is necessary for mastery.

2. Tutorial Tutorial activity includes both the presentation of information and its extension into different forms of work, including drill and practice, games and simulation.

3. Games Game software often creates a contest to achieve the highest score and either beat others or beat the computer.

4. Simulation Simulation software can provide an approximation of reality that does not require the expense of real life or its risks.

5. Discovery Discovery approach provides a large database of information specific to a course or content area and challenges the learner to analyze, compare, infer and evaluate based on their explorations of the data.

6. Problem Solving This approach helps children develop specific problem solving skills and strategies.

Advantages of CAI

According to the http://www.britannica.com, the following are some of the identified advantages of CAI in the education process. They include; one-to-one interaction, great motivator, freedom to experiment with different options, instantaneous response/immediate feedback to the answers elicited, Self-pacing (allow students to proceed at their own pace), helps teacher can devote more time to individual students, privacy helps the shy and slow learner to learns, learn more and more rapidly, Multimedia helps to understand difficult concepts through multi-sensory approach and lastly Self-directed learning – students can decide when, where, and what to learn.

Limitations of CAI

On the other hand, the limitations of CAI have been identified as; a student may feel overwhelmed by the information and resources available, over use of multimedia may divert the attention from the content, learning becomes too mechanical, non-availability of good CAI packages and lack of infrastructure such as computers and support peripherals.